Tattrie, J. While the problem may seem too nebulous and out of control to fix, there are actions we can take as individuals and as a society to help control the dangerous spread of misinformation. That's why the latest UN Climate Reports say climate disinformation is a threat to climate action.. A new scorecard by Friends of the Earth, Avaaz, and Greenpeace USA shows that . That is, how factual news differ from different types of misinformation in terms of (1) evocation to emotions (sentiment analysispositive, neutral, negativeand appeal to moral language as a challenge to social identity), and (2) cognitive effort needed to process the content (both in terms of grammatical featuresreadabilityand lexical featuresperplexity). 10, 2020). Conspiracy theories, including around COVID-19, receive more support from men than women (Cassese, E. C., et al., Politics & Gender, Vol. Finally, fake news is the category with a lower cognitive effort needed to process the content in all the categories as measured by the readability score (FK=11.25, [CI=11.21, 11.29]). Nat Hum Behav 5(3):337348, Mahir EM, Akhter S, Huq MR (2019). Over nearly 80 years, Harvard study has been showing how to live a healthy and happy life. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Simply put, the longer a sentence or word is, the more complex it is to read. Of course, these differences have huge implications that also highlight the contributions. First, I calculated the Euclidean distance (sum of squared distances and taking the square root of the resulting value), forcing values that are very different to add a higher contribution to the distance among observations. Learning how to separate facts from misinformation or so-called fake news has become a critical modern skill as people Save Page Now. I repeat this process 100 times and average the results for the starting and ending points. Though research directly tying misinformation to behavior is still limited, exposure to fake news does have real-world consequences. Despite its limitations, the obtained results also suggest interesting paths for future research. Likewise, the results open the door to refining previous research. Appl Stat 28:126130, Hauch V, Blandn-Gitlin I, Masip J, Sporer SL (2015) Are computers effective lie detectors? Psychol Sci 28(11):15311546, Choudhary A, Arora A (2021) Linguistic feature based learning model for fake news detection and classification. This is why I will employ a multinominal logistic regression, a technique suitable for mutually exclusive variables with multiple discrete outcomes. Being aware of the potential limitations of this method, the approach offers a benefit: being able to tackle the breadth problem. (2012). Navigate away from the story to investigate the site, its mission and its contact info. Soc Netw Anal Mining 7(1):114. Next, hate speech separates from conspiracy theories and fake news at height=3.30. To investigate the differences between factual news and misinformation, I analyze 92,112 news articles classified into seven categories: clickbait (n=12,955), conspiracy theories (n=15,493), fake news (n=16,158), hate content (n=15,353), junk science (n=16,252), rumors (n=14,158), and factual information (n=1743) (see Methods for a detailed description of the database). Harvard expert Fran Berman advocates for prioritizing public interest over profit with tech innovation and social and regulatory controls. Somehow in-between, I find categories that employ moral language to a greater extent but without high values. This documentary isnt really an equalizer for such injustices, but more of a guide to show that those of African descent did in fact do more than they get credit for. Morality plays a role in identifying categories by augmenting their probabilities of being classified as factual news, rumors, hate speech or junk science as the appeal to morality decreases; and on the contrary, it leads to higher probabilities of being classified as fake news clickbait or conspiracy theories as the appeal to morality in a given text increases. In similar contexts, improving media literacy to process more complex ideas will likely reduce the cognitive load associated with factual information (Ellis & Yuan, 2004; Swabey et al., 2016) and, therefore, the prevalence of misinformation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, Sun S, Nekmat E (2008) Learning through prosuming: insights from media literacy programmes in Asia. For nearly 80 years, the Harvard Study of Adult Development has been producing data and lessons on how to live longer, happier, and healthier lives. Misinformation tends to travel quickly during breaking-news events. Through partnerships with the U.K. Chan School of Public Health on Monday. Oxford dictionaries or Encyclopedia Britannica can also generally be trusted. If you said brown, then you're wrong. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Final Words. PLoS ONE 17(1):e0261768, Chakraborty K, Bhatia S, Bhattacharyya S, Platos J, Bag R, Hassanien AE (2020) Sentiment analysis of COVID-19 tweets by deep learning classifiersa study to show how popularity is affecting accuracy in social media. Pasquetto, I. V., et al.,The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2020, The debunking handbook 2020 High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. Are they real? J Commun 56(SUPPL):5780, Lazer DMJ, Baum MA, Benkler Y, Berinsky AJ, Greenhill KM, Menczer F, Zittrain JL (2018) The science of fake news. Perspect Psychol Sci 15(4):9781010, Brady WJ, Wills JA, Jost JT, Tucker JA, Van Bavel JJ, Fiske ST (2017) Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. J Retail Consum Serv 53:101739, Kunda Z (1990) The case for motivated reasoning. The interpretation is as follows: If perplexity equals 5, it means that the next word in a text can be predicted with an accuracy of 1-in-5 (or 20%, on average). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Nielsen F (2011) A new ANEW: evaluation of a word list for sentiment analysis in microblogs. Finally, misinformation spreads six time faster than factual information (Vosoughi et al., 2018), that is the speed challenge. The results show that misinformation, on average, is easier to process in terms of cognitive effort (3% easier to read and 15% less lexically diverse) and more emotional (10 times more relying on negative sentiment and 37% more appealing to morality). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(41):1728417289, Article Pers Individ Differ 48(8):889894, Zimdars, M (2017) OpenSources. In contrast to previous measures, the technique employed to quantify morality is highly sensitive to text length (with longer texts having higher probabilities of containing moral words), therefore, I calculate the morality measure as moral words per 500 words in each text. Hidden Colors is a documentary about the real and untold history of people of color around the globe. Therefore, the proposed method does not add friction to the user experience of a given platform. There are different types of misinformation. Regardless of why its shared, misinformation surrounding COVID-19 has been so rampant that the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a parallel infodemic to describe the scale of fake news and its potential impact on efforts to limit the viruss spread. The term "fake news" describes a range of false information that can be separated into three distinct types: misinformation, disinformation and mal-information. Misinformation can also arise when people share accurate news stories out of context. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 155(7):807812, De Bruin WB, Granger Morgan M (2019) Reflections on an interdisciplinary collaboration to inform public understanding of climate change, mitigation, and impacts. One key to stanching the deluge of misinformation is to halt its spread on social media platforms, but that requires industry buy-in, which has been slow. Add both to Cart. Researchers have also started to document the scope of the infodemic. Read more. More specifically, following the definition proposed by (Zhou & Zafarani, 2020) the style-based categorization of content is formulated as a multinominal classification problem. After three clusters, reliable news is the first category to be isolated from all the others, revealing its distinctive nature in terms of linguistic characteristics. The obtained results offer the opportunity to explore to what extent different misinformation categories are more viral than others and how their structural features in terms of cognitive effort and appeal to emotions drive this virality. Finally, first differences for appealing to morality show that increasing the morality score from 0.3 to 13.75 generates a decrease on content being classified as factual news (p=0.029, CI=[0.032, 0.025]), a decrease in being classified as junk science (p=0.013, CI=[0.032, 0.025]), a decrease in hate speech (p=0.022, CI=[0.032, 0.009]), and a decrease in being a rumor (p=0.050, CI=[0.058, 0.040]). International Center for Journalists. = x_1, \ldots ,X_p = x_p} \right]1}}{{1 + \mathop {\sum }\nolimits_{l = 1}^{J - 1} e^{\beta _{0l} + \beta _{1l}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pl}X_p}}}$$, $$\frac{{p_j\left( X \right)}}{{p_J\left( X \right)}} = e^{\beta _{0j} + \beta _{1j}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pj}X_p}$$, $${{{\mathrm{log}}}}\left( {\frac{{p_j\left( X \right)}}{{p_J\left( X \right)}}} \right) = \beta _{0j} + \beta _{1j}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pj}X_p$$, $${\mathrm{log}}\left( {\frac{{P\left( {{\mathrm{cat}} = j = {\mathrm{fake}}} \right. PubMed Central The game draws on van der Lindens six degrees of manipulation (describing the six common ways misinformation is produced), teaching players how emotional language, fake experts, and conspiracy theories can be used to mislead. 6, No. Browse all of our undergraduate concentrations and graduate degrees. Regarding the first differences, I use the expected values. Reputable online sources such as The Canadian Encyclopedia, Here are some tips to help you tell fact from fiction in todays news. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3). Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The EU is responsible for the flood of terrorist and Islamists into France (). The psychology and politics of conspiracy theories The author declares no competing interests. This measure estimates the educational level that is needed to understand a given text. Part of this research has been financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and the European Social Fund PRE2019-091668. For example, the WHO lists Go Viral! as a resource for tackling online misinformation and has featured the game in its newsletters. An analysis of misinformation from five samples across the United States, Europe, and Mexico showed that substantial portions of each populationanywhere from 15% to 37%believed misinformation about COVID-19 in April and May 2020, representing what the authors call a major threat to public health. People who were more susceptible to misinformation were less likely to report complying with public health recommendations and less likely to say theyd get vaccinated (Royal Society Open Science, Vol. Decis Support Syst 46(3):695703, Gamallo P, Campos JRP, Alegria I (2016) Comparing two basic methods for discriminating between similar languages and varieties*. 109114. Using hidden cameras, social media, court documents and tax returns, Marketplace pieced together a portrait of the movement's misinformation and fundraising tactics. 4. Decision Supp Syst 50(4):732742, Bakir V, McStay A (2018) Fake news and the economy of emotions: problems, causes, solutions. European Commission, Evans JSBT (2003) In two minds: dual-process accounts of reasoning. Number one: Declaring war on the press is a high-risk strategy because they have the biggest possible incentive to get you. John Carpenter Remakes Christine Into an Amazing 4-Minute Short, Avatar: The Last Airbender: Agni Kai Fan Film, Star Wars Actor Jake Lloyd Has Paranoid Schizophrenia. Schwarz identified five criteria that people use to decide whether information is true: compatibility with other known information, credibility of the source, whether others believe it, whether the information is internally consistent, and whether there is supporting evidence (Metacognition, in APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, 2015). Google Scholar, Chan MpuiS, Jones CR, Hall Jamieson K, Albarracn D (2017) Debunking: a meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. CAS PLoS ONE 10(2):e0118093, Article Finally, looking at low levels of appeal to morality (morality=0.3), the probabilities for a given text being classified in each category is: factual (p=0.032, CI=[0.013, 0.016]), clickbait (p=0.132, CI=[0.143, 0.155]), conspiracy theories (p=0.161, CI = [0.182, 0.195]), fake news (p=0.156, CI= [0.201, 0.212]), hate speech (p=0.172, CI=[0.292, 0.308]), junk science (p=0.179, CI=[0.060, 0.065]) and rumor (p=0.168, CI=[0.074, 0.080]). It can adopt many different forms like conspiracy theories, fake news, junk science, or rumors among others. Psychological studies of both misinformation (also called fake news), which refers to any claims or depictions that are inaccurate, and disinformation, a subset of misinformation intended to mislead, are helping expose the harmful impact of fake newsand offering potential remedies. Therefore, I calculate the uncertainty in predicting each word appearance in every text through perplexity (Griffiths & Steyvers, 2004), a measure that has been used for language identification (Gamallo et al., 2016), to discern between formal and informal tweets (Gonzlez, 2015), to model childrens early grammatical knowledge (Bannard et al., 2009), measuring the distance between languages (Gamallo et al., 2017) or to assess racial disparities in automated speech recognition (Koenecke et al., 2020). FactsCan, launched in 2015, offers independent, non-partisan fact-checking of Canadian politicians and political news stories. Macbeth) in the essay title portion of your citation. For example, the Pew Research Center found that only 17% of US adults have the skills to safely navigate the information ecosystem (Horrigan, 2016). Dont be fooled by false reporting. If we later hear a correction, it doesnt invalidate our thoughtsand its our own thoughts that can maintain a bias, even when we accept that the original information was false.. Stare at the dot for 30-45 seconds. These resources include the Poynter Institutes MediaWise for Seniors program and AARPs Fact Tracker interactive videos. IEEE. This is also called clickbait. Their speedy development, in addition to well-grounded skepticism of the medical establishment among minority groups, also contribute to public uncertainty. Cabinet Office, the WHO, and the United Nations, the game has already reached thousands of people. Pew Research Center, 12, Singh L, Bode L, Budak C, Kawintiranon K, Padden C, Vraga E (2020) Understanding high- and low-quality URL Sharing on COVID-19 Twitter streams. Science, 359(6380), 10941096; Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. Click on those links. 461475. Finally, the most similar categories are conspiracy theories and fake news (height=1.84). Misinformation in Canada. With world-class faculty, groundbreaking research opportunities, and a diverse group of talented students, Harvard is more than just a place to get an education. These results indicate that there are significant differences between content characteristics from factual sources and misinformation content in the form of clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science and rumors. In this case, I used factual news as the level of the outcome since I am interested how misinformation differs from this baseline using the following formula: where s=sentiment, m=morality, r=readability and p=perplexity. ADS Therefore, to calculate the expected value I apply the same procedure for the predicted value and average over the fundamental uncertainty of the m simulations (in this case, m=100). Misleading content may package an opinion piece to make it sound like fact. Technol Soc 13:259278, Swabey L, Nicodemus B, Taylor MM, Gile D (2016) Lexical decisions and related cognitive issues in spoken and signed language interpreting. Infodemic: World Health Organization defines an infodemic as "an overabundance of informationsome accurate and some notthat . Springer, New York, Vosoughi S, Roy D, Aral S (2018) The spread of true and false news online. Deception spreads faster than truth on social media. Carlos Carrasco-Farr. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 191229. 149, No. The science of fake news. These results show the predicted probabilities for all choices of the multinominal logit model I employed. A test of COVID-19 misinformation led by Pennycook and his colleagues found that a simple accuracy nudge increased participants ability to discern between real and fake news. This paper explores the characteristics of misinformation content compared to factual newsthe fingerprints of misinformationusing 92,112 news articles classified into several categories: clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science, and rumors. Harvard Laws Martha Minow says there are plenty of steps the federal government could take to clean up the flood of disinformation and misinformation. This unprecedented fingerprint of misinformation provides evidence that content features differ significantly between factual news and different types of misinformation and therefore can facilitate early detection, automation, and the use of intelligent techniques to support fact-checking and other mitigation actions. Then, clickbait (p=155.07, [CI=154.57, 155.57]) and junk science (p=163.91, [CI=163.53, 164.30]) are the categories right below factual content (p=174.23, [CI = 172.99, 175.47]). Google Scholar, Berger JA, Milkman KL (2009) What makes online content viral? Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications (Humanit Soc Sci Commun) In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles From here, I can calculate how surprising each word x is by using log(p(x)). In addition, personality traits such as lower levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and humility are associated with conspiracy theory belief (Bowes, S. M., et al., Journal of Personality, online first publication,2020). Indeed, there is experimental evidence that engaging in analytic thinking reduces the propensity to share fake news (Bago et al., 2020; Gordon Pennycook et al., 2015; Gordon Pennycook & Rand, 2019). Misinformation is a type of fake news, which is false information reported by media outlets or shared by regular people. example, participants in one study were shown video of a car accident. Google Scholar, Broniatowski DA, Kerchner D, Farooq F, Huang X, Jamison AM, Dredze M, Ayers JW (2022) Twitter and Facebook posts about COVID-19 are less likely to spread misinformation compared to other health topics. In order to reduce the total amount of disinformation online, it would need to be a less profitable endeavor. Coca-Cola worked through the Chinese branch of a U.S.-based nonprofit to influence anti-obesity measures in China, according to research by Harvard Professor Susan Greenhalgh. Soc Netw Anal Mining 10(1):121, Dehghani M, Johnson K, Hoover J, Sagi E, Garten J, Parmar N, Graham J (2016) Purity homophily in social networks. Given the predictors \(X_1, \ldots ,X_pX_1, \ldots ,X_p\). 907 claimed. Season one of The Last Archive by historian and author Jill Lepore, Harvards David Woods Kemper 41 Professor of American History, takes listeners on a journey through the last century, examining the evolution of standards of evidence, proof, and knowledge to parse out why notions of truth have become so slippery. In contrast, the following junk science article has one of the highest positive values (emotion=+28): A new bionic eye lenses currently in development would give humans 3x vision, at any age. Hidden Colors The Film: Black History the Whole Story by SouLutions Beyond Limits Publication date 2011-05-21 Umar R. Abdullah-Johnson, blood Relative of Frederick Douglass is a Certified Psychologist and President of the NATIONAL MOVEMENT TO SAVE BLACK BOYS. Psychol Sci 22(7):891893, Article Thinking, fast and slow. Focusing on the evolution of traditional media outlets could shed light on the question whether reliable sources are trying to draw on the mechanisms of virality to help increase their penetration (e.g., reliable news becoming more appealing to emotions, titles becoming more exciting, content easier to read, etc.)? With 18k+ articles and 40 novels written, Tom knows a little something about storytelling. 4Lazer, D. M. J., et al. Correspondence to Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. 02:23:48. 10, 2020). Not all misinformation is created equal. Psychologists say more research is needed to understand whether susceptibility to misinformation is a general or context-dependent traitfor example, whether people who believe political fake news are the same people who believe COVID-19 fake news (Scherer, L. D., & Pennycook, G., American Journal of Public Health, Vol. Moreover, the results must be interpreted in the light of some methodological limitations that I expose in the corresponding section. In response, psychologists accelerated their research on the spread of online misinformation and how to address it.4, 2018Present The objective was not to provide the most detailed model to describe misinformation, but a parsimonious description of key features. 977982). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. One study documents hundreds of deaths and thousands of hospitalizations around the world associated with COVID-19 misinformation, including rumors, conspiracy theories, and stigmas (Islam, M. S., et al., The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Vol. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01174-9, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01174-9. 97106). Is vaccine misinformation affecting our health? B Clustering results with more than two clusters. In this paper, I propose a model that can differentiate between 7 different categories of content: clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science, rumors, and finally, factual sources. $50 USD. 7, No. 274277, Horberg EJ, Oveis C, Keltner D (2011) Emotions as moral amplifiers: An appraisal tendency approach to the influences of distinct emotions upon moral judgment. In several samples, older adults were also less likely to believe coronavirus fake news (Roozenbeek, J., et al., Royal Society Open Science, Vol. Coordinated misinformation efforts have been documented throughout recorded history, starting with a political smear campaign against Roman general Mark Antony regarding his relationship with Cleopatra, which used slogans carved on coins. Also, deceptive content can adopt different forms. 10 Things You Didnt Know about the Hidden Colors Documentary, 6 Secret Codes for Hidden Christmas Movies on Netflix, Beauty And The Beast To Be First Disney Movie Featuring Openly Gay Character. In Proceedings of the Tweet Translation Workshop 2015 (pp. A shows the cognitive effort needed to process a text using the Flesch-Kincaid readability score; B the cognitive effort as measured by perplexity; C plots the sentiment (positive, neutral, negative) of each category; D shows the appeal to morality in each category. If friends or family share information via This isnt. Draw a ghost (or other shape of your choice) on one of the blank sheets of paper on the center of the page using a colored marker. 263, 2020). Similar to the previous step, but focusing in the esthetics of the website, including photo-shopped images. 3, 2014). $54.53. Thought processes more common among those who hold far-right political beliefs, such as paranoid ideation and distrust of authority, also correlate with an increased endorsement of conspiratorial narratives (van Prooijen, J.-W., et al., Social Psychology and Personality Science, Vol. See also: Media Literacy; Media Bias in Canada; Propaganda in Canada; To avoid that, one should first click through to the story being shared. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 14:159. pp. Tsugawa S, Ohsaki H (2017) On the relation between message sentiment and its virality on social media. Google Scholar, Barrn-Cedeo A, Jaradat I, Da San Martino G, Nakov P (2019) Proppy: organizing the news based on their propagandistic content. This logistic model is generalizable to categorical variables with more than two levels namely {1,,J}{1,,J}. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 114(28):73137318, Article As for the sentiment of the content, a one-unit increase in negative sentiment is associated with an increase in the log odds of a content being clickbait \(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{clickbait}}} = - 0.01\), p<0.001), conspiracy theory (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{conspiracy}}} = - 0.02\), p<0.001), fake news (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{fake}}\,{\mathrm{news}}} = - 0.02\), p<0.001) or hate speech (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{hate}}} = - 0.03\), p<0.001), indicating that these categories tend to employ a highly negative and sentimental language; while a one-unit increase in the positive sentiment score is associated with an increase in the log odds of a content being junk science (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{junk}}\,{\mathrm{science}}} = 0.02\), p<0.001) or a rumor (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{rumor}}} = 0.01\), p<0.001). In general, more advanced and diverse language allows to encode more complex ideas (Ellis & Yuan, 2004), which generates a higher cognitive load (Swabey et al., 2016). Political ideology also appears to play a role, with those holding extreme beliefsparticularly on the far rightbeing most susceptible to misinformation (Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A., Social Sciences, Vol. 8, 2020). I wondered where I should post this but I think you guys would appreciate it the most. In contrast to previous approaches (Hakak et al., 2021; Mahir et al., 2019; Manzoor et al., 2019), I provide an explainable model that is well-justified and grounded in common methods. Then, they asked to assess if the article accurately reflects the actual content. In this paper I propose a method that is independent of network behavior, information cascades or their virality. Hidden Colors: Directed by Tariq Nasheed. Judgem Decis Making 10(6):549563, Pennycook Gordon, Rand DG (2019) Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. For any given text, there is a probability p for each word to appear. CAS To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. After calculating all the measures (readability scores, perplexity, appeal to morality and sentiment analysis), I deleted all the outliers (lower bound quantile=0.025 and upper bound quantile=0.975).

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